Saturday, January 25, 2020
Overview Of Science Teaching Yesterday Today And Tomorrow Education Essay
Overview Of Science Teaching Yesterday Today And Tomorrow Education Essay The development of science education in the United States is said to have been pushed by a perceived lack and deficiency with laggard innovations in science and the declining quality of students the science curriculum has produced. Reforms in the science curriculum in the past were triggered by Soviet Unions Sputnik launch and how the event placed the US behind their Russian counterparts (Matthews, 1994). Today, in the era of globalization, a growing concern is the declining standards and performance of American students in mathematics and science. The challenge falls upon the entire American education system to ensure scientific literacy among its citizens and equip them with the scientific competency to become productive members of a democratic society. This paper discusses the evolution of science education in the United States in order to evaluate how the science teacher or educator could initiate reforms in the classroom or the systemic setting. Science Education: The Past It is a common perception among students that science is a difficult and deplorable subject in school (Krehbiel, 1999). Responsibility has fallen upon policy-makers and science teachers to make the sciences more appealing to students. As Stephen Jay Gould said, We think that science is intrinsically hard, scary, or arcane, and that teachers can only beat the necessary knowledge, by threat and exhortation, into a small minority born with inborn propensity (as cited in Osborne, 2007, p. 117). Why has science education acquired this brand or label as a seemingly impossible subject which only a handpicked few could appreciate and comprehend? The history of science education suggests that the rigidity, prescriptive curriculum, and standardized form of science teaching as a subject based on memorization of facts on a very wide range of science content might have contributed to this perception (Matthews, 1994). The standardization of science teaching in the late 1800s was undertaken in order to address the problem of the lack of qualified science teachers. The school curriculum concept grew out of the London School Board in the United Kingdom in 1870, prompting the training of science teachers who can ably teach science courses to the general public. In the United States, the standardization of science education came in the 1890s and there was a great debate on what ideology should guide the school science curriculum: citizen science or professional training. In 1892, a group called the Committee of Ten was tasked by the National Education Association (NEA) to make recommendations for a school science curriculum. This commi ttee emphasized on science teaching as a citizen science that is important in grooming professional scientists in the future. As a result, the entire American education system applied the curriculum recommended by this Committee (Wallace and Loughran, 2003). The emphasis was theoretical and stressed on the teaching of facts and principles of the disciplines. The approach was foundationalist, where the curriculum attempts to make the future scientist learn all the basic concepts of every science discipline. Cohen opines that the tradition of attempting to make students memorize a series of dry facts was impractical because no practicing scientist readily memorizes such as the density of various substances, the atomic weight of different chemical elementsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the distance in light years from the Earth to various stars (and so on) (as cited in Osborne, 2007, p. 173). This tradition still dominates science education today, but has also been challenged with the introduction of other ideologies to guide science teaching. One is the applied approach where science is taught in relation to how everyday things function and contribute to society, and the liberal or humanistic approach, where emphasis is given on the implications of science in a historical and cultural sense (Matthews, 1994). Science Education: The Present The same concerns still exist in science education today. Attitudes toward science and mathematics among students remain negative and parental support for a science-geared education has declined (Osborne, 2007). K-12 science educators in many states in the US still follow the rigid, theoretical tradition in science teaching and conform strictly to the curriculum and content prescribed among age groups. Policy makers and education lobbyists have expressed concern that emphasis on facts and theories have resulted to teachers who merely cover the material, without teaching the material. The process of science is overlooked and the student fails to develop critical thinking skills and appreciation for the scientific method. Osborne (2007) articulates the tension in science teaching today. She argues that the science curriculum is geared at developing future scientists, hence, the stress on factual and theoretical presentation on a wide range of content. This contributes to the perception that becoming competent in science is practical only to students who want to pursue a career in the sciences someday. The aim of scientific literacy for all citizens is missed if this kind of thinking is not corrected. According to Krehbiel (1999), science teachers have the responsibility of clarifying to students that science competency is not only suited for the future scientist, it is also beneficial to non-scientists. Scientific literacy contributes to the development of problem-solving skills that greatly benefit non-scientists and can be applied in everyday life. Science education development today wants to enhance the competency of teachers. Teachers are central to the development of scientific literacy which is the end goal of science education (Osborne, 2007). Their qualifications and their attitudes play a great role in accomplishing this mission. State Boards have specific requirements and credentials for science teachers. Studies have shown that teachers who possess subject-specific degrees are better qualified to influence positive science outcomes among students than those who do not (Cronginer et al., 2003). However, secondary characteristics such as teachers attitudes and belief systems play a major role in motivating students to learn. Wallace Loughran (2003) suggest that there are many factors that contribute to the belief systems of science teachers, such as social pressure (or the need to conform to prescribed methods of instruction) and the apprenticeship of observation (or the mirroring of style of teaching they experienced a s students in their science classes). Attitudes about practice reflect upon a science teachers teaching style, which in turn influence comprehension. Teachers who consider themselves as transmitters of knowledge apply a teacher-centered style of instruction where the main goal is the delivery of the content or subject matter (Wallace Loughran, 2003). A teacher who espouses this tradition adheres strictly to the organization of content while the needs of students are secondary considerations only. Lesson plans are designed to conform to prescribed content with no concern for student readiness or aptitude. Wallace and Loughran (2003) identify this method as the most dominant form in science teachers. An alternative style is the student-centered method which focuses primarily students comprehension. A teacher who practices this style first considers his or her students prior knowledge or aptitude before planning lessons and concentrates on forming social interactions or collaborative relationships with students (Wallace L oughran, 2003). Science Education: The Future If the international rankings of American students in science and mathematics are predictive of the quality of science education, then there are great challenges to be overcome in the near future. As American students lag behind their European and Asian counterparts in science competency, reforms in policy and corporate support are today heavily emphasized to produce more globally competitive students in the future. Microsoft founder Bill Gates has contributed billions to encourage students to take science course in college. Organizations such as Tapping Americas Potential provide scholarships for more students to graduate with degrees in science, mathematics, and engineering (Osborne, 2007). In the education system, policy reforms are also under way. In 1996, the National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment (NCSESA) came up recommendations on how to better produce more scientifically literate students for the future. Standards related to science teaching were presented in the book National Science Education Standards, such as: The vision of science education described by the Standards requires changes throughout the entire system. What students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught. The actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their perceptions of science as an enterprise and as a subject to be taught and learned. Student understanding is actively constructed through individual and social processes. Actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their understanding of and relationships with students. (p. 30) Among the reforms in elementary and secondary science education emphasize on the need for inquiry-based and hands-on curriculum used in schools. It has been a major thrust advocated in the National Science Education Standards and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Conclusion The development of science education has been made possible by the careful study of its past, an assessment of the present, and a positive outlook on the future. Remnants of the heavily theoretical orientation of science teaching of the 19th century are still practiced today. At present, there has been a noticeable decline in the competency of students in science and mathematics, pushing the drive for more reforms in science education. The recommendations, while focusing on the systemic need for science education reform, also highlight the important role of the science teacher in achieving better science outcomes among students. Teachers competency, decisions about the content, peer interactions, behaviors, attitudes, and belief systems significantly influence students comprehension, appreciation, and attitudes toward science.
Friday, January 17, 2020
Psychology Process Essay
           Although psychological pioneers such as Jung and Freud dominated much of the early dialogue regarding psychoanalytic theory in the early through mid twentieth century, the contribution of Erik Erikson to modern psychology has proven to be no less enduring than it was originally regarded as radical. Some evidence suggests that Erikson’s theories of the eight stages of personal development have enjoyed a more widespread acceptance among contemporary twenty-first century thinkers and scholars than many of his predecessors and colleagues. Erikson was a pioneer in adult psychoanalytic theory: â€Å"he stands alone as the one thinker who changed our minds about what it means to live as a person who has arrived at a chronologically mature position and yet continues to grow, to change, and to develop.†(Hoare 3); because Erikson’s theories went â€Å"beyond†those extended by Freud and others, his contributions to modern psychology are still regarded as important second-stage psychoanalytic theory.            Although for Freud â€Å"humans were psychosexual creatures†(Hoare 4). ,for Erikson the human psyche presented a much more complex and evolving entity, one which developed over a series of specifically defined stages, and the successful or unsuccessful navigation through these stages, which numbered eight, indicated whether or not an individual had successfully attained a working self-identity. Perhaps Erikson’s break-through inn psychoanalytic theory were at least partially based upon his personal life-experiences. Certainly within the context of Erikson’s theories of identity development, one’s personal experience played a crucial role in the development of identity. As his many biographers have noted, Erikson â€Å"lived in dramatic times†(Hoare 4). and in his life he experienced â€Å"two world wars[†¦] and, later, living in the United States, saw the origin and first use of nuclear weapons.†(Hoare 4).; whether or not these historical experienced shaped his intellectual vision is debatable. What is less ambiguous is whether or not Erikson’s personal life, outside of any historical context, influenced his theories and it certainly did. Erikson’s early life: â€Å"born on June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany†(Hoare 7). Erikson first lived alone with his mother and then later, â€Å"The two lived among his mother’s artist friends, who provided early identifications for him†(Hoare 7). The fact that Erikson was essentially an artist rather than a pure scientist allowed him to bring a sensitivity to his psychological studies and theories which many scholars believe was previously lacking in psychology.            It is well known that Erikson in nineteen sixty-three â€Å"postulated eight stages that must be encountered successfully and lived through in the development of the self†(Hattie 118).; the navigation of these eight stages produced an enduring self-identity which continued to develop adn meet challenges right on through until personal death. (Hattie). The specific stages were looked at by Erikson as challenges and one either â€Å"won†or â€Å"lost†them. Such a vision was radical when Erikson proposed it and his ideas are still regarded, by some, as quite radical today.            For example, Christian educational theorists belive that not only Erikson, but many of the psychoanalytic theorists of the twentieth century have replaced the traditional role of ministers, and other mentors and societal influences over the upbringing of children in Western society. These people believe that â€Å"the vocabulary of the psychologist frames virtually all public discussion[†¦] Anthropologists and sociologists are likewise absent from the discussion.† (Hunter 5).a and this is viewed as being highly detrimental to educational strategies and programs. However, despite the criticism of groups like these, Erikson’s theories continue to be deeply referenced and relied upon by modern psychologists, and he is revered as the primary thinker in psychology who extended the recognition of the development of self-identity beyond the early stages of adolescence and envisioned a paradigm which covered the evolution of the self over the entire duration of an individual life.                                                           Works Cited Hattie, John. Self-Concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992. Hoare, Carol Hren, ed. Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the   Unpublished Papers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Hunter, James Davison. â€Å"When Psychotherapy Replaces Religion.†Public Interest Spring             2000: 5.
Thursday, January 9, 2020
Differences Between Indian And American Culture Essay
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni highlights the differences between Indian and American culture in her collection of short stories, Arranged Marriage. Each tale utilizes a different narrator, whether it is first or third person narration, to highlight the struggles women face in all arranged marriages. Many of these women live in America, yet India’s strict moral code still burdens them. In â€Å"Doors†, Preeti struggles to balance her American beliefs with the Indian beliefs of her husband, similarly to Anju, who wonders if her life and pregnancy would be different if she lived in India throughout â€Å"The Ultrasound†. In â€Å"The Word Love†, a woman must confront her situation and push her boundaries. Divakaruni shows the highs and lows of arranged marriages, proving that I would not thrive in a commitment made without my input. As an only child, I adore personal space. I grew up never sharing a bedroom or bathroom, never fought with anyone over the remote c ontrol nor shotgun in the car. When I received my roommate assignment, I will admit that I cringed. Stuck in a triple, I imagined a dark, cramped room with all three of us living on top of each other. When I arrived at school, the room did not match my nightmares and I thought all was well. The first two nights of school, I slept alone in the room, as one roommate stayed at a hotel with her parents and the other had a horse show out of town. The mini-fridge is right across from my bed and the electronic glow of the clock ruined myShow MoreRelatedDifferences Between American Culture And Indian Culture1167 Words  | 5 PagesCulture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, defined by everything from language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. The cultures around the world are very different and very much the alike at the same time. On the other hand, some similarities also lie between two nations. 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Wednesday, January 1, 2020
How to Deal with Unprepared Students
One of the facts that every teacher faces is that each day there will be one or more students who come to class without the ​necessary books and tools. They might be missing their pencil, paper, textbook, or whatever other school supply you asked them to bring with them that day. As the teacher, you need to decide how you will deal with this situation when it arises. There are basically two schools of thought about how to deal with a case of missing supplies: those who think that students should be held responsible for not bringing everything they need, and those who feel that a missing pencil or notebook should not be the cause of the student losing out on the days lesson. Lets take a look at each of these arguments. Students Should Be Held Responsible Part of succeeding not only in school but also in the real world is learning how to be responsible. Students must learn how to get to class on time, participate in a positive manner, manage their time so that they submit their homework assignments on time, and, of course, come to class prepared. Teachers who believe that one of their main tasks is to reinforce the need for the students to be responsible for their own actions will typically have strict rules about missing school supplies. Some teachers will not allow the student to participate in the class at all unless they have found or borrowed the necessary items. Others might penalize assignments because of forgotten items. For example, a geography teacher who is having students color in a map of Europe might reduce a students grade for not bringing in the required colored pencils. Students Should Not Miss Out The other school of thought holds that even though a student needs to learn responsibility, forgotten supplies should not stop them from learning or participating in the days lesson. Typically, these teachers will have a system for students to borrow supplies from them. For example, they might have a student trade something valuable for a pencil that they then return at the end of the class when they get that pencil back. One excellent teacher at my school only lends pencils out if the student in question leaves one shoe in exchange. This is a foolproof way of ensuring that the borrowed supplies are returned before the student leaves the class. Random Textbook Checks Textbooks can cause a lot of headaches for teachers as students are prone to leaving these at home. Most teachers do not have extras in their classroom for students to borrow. This means that forgotten textbooks typically result in students having to share. One way to provide incentives for students to bring their texts each day is to periodically hold random textbook/material checks. You can either include the check as part of each students participation grade or give them some other reward such as extra credit or even some candy. This depends on your students and the grade you are teaching. Larger Problems What if you have a student who rarely if ever brings their materials to class. Before jumping to the conclusion that they are just lazy and writing them a referral, try to dig a little deeper. If there is a reason that they are not bringing their materials, work with them to come up with strategies to help. For example, if you think the issue at hand is simply one of organization issues, you might provide them with a checklist for the week for what they need each day. On the other hand, if you feel that there are issues at home that are causing the problem, then you would do well to get the students guidance counselor involved.
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